INJURY. A wrong or tort. Injuries are divided into public and private; and they affect the. person, personal property, or real property.

3. - 1. They affect the person absolutely or relatively. The absolute injuries are, threats and menaces, assaults, batteries, wounding, mayhems; injuries to health, by nuisances or medical malpractices. Those affecting reputation are, verbal slander, libels, and malicious prosecutions; and those affecting personal liberty are, false imprisonment and malicious prosecutions. The relative injuries are those which affect the rights of a hushand; these are, abduction of the wife, or harboring her, adultery and battery those which affect the rights of a parent, as, abduction, seduction, or battery of a child; and of a master, seduction, harboring and battery of his apprentice or servant. Those which conflict with the rights of the inferior relation, namely, the wife, child, apprentice, or servant, are, withholding conjugal rights, maintenance, wages, &c.

4. - 2. Injuries to personal property, are, the unlawful taking and detention thereof from the owner; and other injuries are, some damage affecting the same while in the claimant's possession, or that of a third person, or injuries to his reversionary interests.

5. - 3. Injuries to real property are, ousters, trespasses nuisances, waste, subtraction of rent, disturbance of right of way, and the like.

6. Injuries arise in three ways. 1. By nonfeasance, or the not doing what was a legal obligation, or. duty, or contract, to perform. 2. Misfeasance, or the performance, in an improper manner, of an act which it was either the party's duty, or his contract, to perform. 3. Malfeasance, or the unjust performance of some act which the party had no right, or which he had contracted not to do.

7. The remedies are different, as the injury affects private individuals, or the public. 1. When the injuries affect a private right and a private individual, although often also affecting the public, there are three descriptions of remedies: 1st. The preveative, such as defence, resistance, recaption, abatement of nuisance, surety of the peace, injunction, &c. 2d. Remedies for compensation, which may be by arbitration, suit, action, or summary proceedings before a justice of the peace. 3d. Proceedings for punishment, as by indictment, or summary Proceedings before a justice. 2. When the injury is such as to affect the public, it becomes a crime, misdemeanor, or offence, and the party may be punished by indictment or summary conviction, for the public injury; and by civil action at the suit of the party, for the private wrong. But in cases of felony, the remedy by action for the private injury is generally suspendid until the party particularly injured has fulfilled his duty to the public by prosecuting the offender for the public crime; and in cases of homicide the remedy is merged in the felony. 1 Chit. Pr. 10; Ayl. Pand. 592. See 1 Miles' Rep. 316, 17; and article Civil Remedy.

8. There are many injuries for which the law affords no remedy. In general, it interferes only when there has been a visible bodily injury inflicted by force or poison, while it leaves almost totally unprotected the whole class of the most malignant mental injuries and sufferings unless in a few cases, where, by descending to a fiction, it sordidly supposes some pecuniary loss, and sometimes, under a mask, and contrary to its own legal principles, affords compensation to wounded feelings. A parent, for example, cannot sue, in that character, for an injury inflicted on his child and when his own domestic happiness has been destroyed, unless the fact will sustain the allegation that the daughter was the servant of her father, and that, by, reason of such seduction, he lost the benefit of her services. Another instance may be mentioned: A party cannot recover damages for verbal slander in many cases; as, when the facts published are true, for the defendant would justify and the party injured must fail. A case of this kind, remarkably bard, occurred in England. A young nobleman had seduced a young woman, who, after living with him some time, became sensible of the impropriety of her conduct. She left him secretly, and removed to an obscure place in the kingdom, where she obtained a situation, and became highly respected in consequence of her good conduct she was even promoted to a better and more public employment when she was unfortunately discovered by her seducer. He made proposals to her to renew their illicit intercourse, which were rejected; in order to, force her to accept them, he published the history of her early life, and she was discharged from her employment, and lost the good opinion of those on whom she depended for her livelihood. For this outrage the culprit could not be made answerable, civilly or criminally. Nor will the law punish criminally the author of verbal slander, imputing even the most infamous crimes, unless done with intent to extort a chattel, money, or valuable thing. The law presume, perhaps unnaturally enough, that a man is incapable of being alarmed or affected by such injuries to his feelings. Vide 1 Chit. Med. Jur. 320. See, generally, Bouv. Inst. Index, h. t.

INJURY, civil law, In the technical sense of the term it is a delict committed in contempt, or outrage of any one, whereby his body, his dignity, or his reputation, is. maliciously injured. Voet, Com. ad Pand. lib. 47, t. 10, n. 1.

2. Injuries may be divided into two classes, With reference to the means used by the wrong doer, namely, by words and by acts. The first are called verbal injuries, the latter real.

3. A verbal injury, when directed against a private person, consists in the uttering contumelious words, which tend to expose his character, by making him little or ridiculous. Where the offensive words are uttered in the beat of a dispute, and spoken to the person's face, the law does not presume any malicious intention in the utterer, whose resentment generally subsides with his passion;, and yet, even in that case, the truth of the injurious words seldom absolves entirely from punishment. Where the injurious expressions have a tendency to blacken one's moral character, or fix some particular guilt upon him, and are deliberately repeated in different companies, or banded about in whispers to confidants, it then grows up to the crime of slander, agreeably to the distinction of the Roman law, 1. 15, 12, de injur.

4. A reat injury is inflicted by any fact by which a person's honor or dignity is affected; as striking one with a cane, or even aiming a blow without striking; spitting in one's face; assuming a coat of arms, or any other mark of distinction proper to another, &c. The composing and publish in defamatory libels maybe reckoned of this kind. Ersk. Pr. L. Scot. 4, 4, 45.

INJUSTICE. That which is opposed to justice.

2. It is either natural or civil. 1. Natural injustice is the act of doing harm to mankind, by violating natural rights. 2. Civil injustice, is the unlawful violation of civil rights.

INLAGARE. To admit or restore to the benefit of law.

INLAGATION. The restitution of one outlawed to the protection of the law. Bract. lib. 2, c. 14.

INLAND. Within the same country.

2. It seems not to be agreed whether the term inland applies to all the United States or only to one state. It has been holden in Now York that a bill of exchange by one person in one state, on another person in another, is an inland bill of exchange; 5 John. Rep. 375; but a contrary opinion seems to have been held in the circuit court of the United States for Pennsylvania. Whart. Dig. tit. Bills of Exchange, E, pl. 78. Vide 2 Phil. Ev. 36, and Bills of Exchange.

INMATE. One who dwells in a part of another's house, the latter dwelling, at the same time, in the said house. Kitch. 45, b; Com. Dig. Justices of the Peace, B 85; 1 B. & Cr. 578; 8 E. C. L. R. 153; 2 Dowl. & Ryl. 743; 8 B. & Cr. 71; 15 E. C. L. R. 154; 2 Mann. & Ryl. 227; 9 B. & Cr. 176; 17 E. C. L. R. 385; 4 Mann. & Ryl. 151; 2 Russ. on Cr. 937; 1 Deac. Cr. L. 185; 2 East, P. Cr. 499, 505; 1 Leach's Cr. L. 90, 237, 427; Alcock's Registration Cases, 21; 1 Mann. & Gran. 83; 39 E. C. L. R. 365. Vide Lodger.

INN. A house where a traveller is furnished with every thing he has occasion for while on his way. Bac. Ab. Inns. B; 12 Mod. 255; 3 B. & A. 283; 4 Campb. 77; 2 Chit. Rep. 484; 3 Chit. Com. Law, 365, n. 6.

2. All travellers have a lawful right to enter an inn for the purpose of being accommodated. It has been held that an innkeeper in a town'through which lines of stages pass, has no right to, exclude the driver of one of these lines from his yard and the common public rooms, where travellers are usually placed, who comes there at proper hours, and in a proper manner, to solicit passengers for his coach, and without doing any injury to the innkeeper. 8 N. H. R. 523; Hamm. N. P. 170. Vide Entry; Guest.

INNAVIGABLE. Not capable of being navigated.

INNINGS, estates. Lands gained from the sea by draining. Cunn. L. Dict. h. t.; Law of Sewers, 31.

INNKEEPER. He is defined to be the keeper of a common inn for the lodging and entertainment of travellers and passengers, their horses and attendants, for a reasonable compensation. Bac. Ab. Inns, &c.; Story, Bailm. 475. But one who entertains strangers occasionally, although he may receive compensation for it, is not an innkeeper. 2 Dev. & Bat. 424.

2. His duties will be first considered and, secondly, his rights.

3. - 1. He is bound to take in and receive all travellers and wayfaring persons, and to entertain them, if he can accommodate them, for a reasonable compensation; and he must guard their goods with proper diligence. He is liable only for the goods which are brought within the inn. 8 Co. 32; Jones' Bailm. 91. A delivery of the goods into the custody of the innkeeper is not, however, necessary, in order to make him responsible; for although he may not know anything of such goods, he is bound to pay for them if they are stolen or carried away, even by an unknown person; 8 Co. 32; Hayw. N. C. R. 41; 14 John. R. 175; 1 Bell's Com. 469; and if he receive the guest, the custody of the goods may be considered as an* accessory to the principal contract; and the money paid for the apartments as extending to the care of the box and portmanteau. Jones' Bailm. 94; Story, Bailm. 470; 1 Bl. Com. 430; 2 Kent, Com. 458 to 463. The degree of care which the innkeeper is bound to take is uncommon care, and he will be liable for a slight negligence. He is responsible for the acts of his domestics and servants, as well as for the acts of his other guests, if the goods are stolen or lost; but he is not responsible for any tort or injury done by his servants or others, to the, person of his guest, without his own cooperation or consent. 8 Co. 32. The innkeeper will be excused whenever the loss has occurred through the fault of the guest. Story, Bailm. 483: 4 M. & S. 306; S. C. 1 Stark. R. 251, note 2 Kent, Com. 461; 1 Yeates' R. 34.

4. - 2. The innkeeper is entitled to a just compensation for his care and trouble in taking care of his guest and his property; and to enable him to obtain this, the law invests him with some peculiar privileges, giving him alien upon the goods, of the guest, brought into the inn, and, it is said, upon the person of his guest, for his compensation. 3 B. & Ald. 287; 8 Mod. 172; 1 Shower, Rep. 270; Bac. Ab. Inns, &c., D. But the horse of the guest can be detained only for his own keeping, and not for the boarding and personal expenses of the guest. Bac. Ab. h. t. The landlord may also bring an action for the recovery of his compensation. Vide, generally, 1 Vin. Ab. 224; 14 Vin. Ab. 436; Bac. Ab. h. t.; Yelv. 67, a, 162, a; 2 Kent, Com. 458; Ayl. Pand. 266; 9 Pick. 280; 21 Wend. 285; 1 Yeates, 35: Oliph. on the Law of Horses, 125; Bouv. Inst. Index, h. t.

INNOCENCE, The absence of guilt.

2. The law presumes in favor of innocence, even against another presumption of law: for example, when a woman marries a second hushand within the space of twelve months after her hushand had left the country, the presumption of innocence preponderates over the presumption of the continuance of life. 2 B. & A. 386 3 Stark. Ev. 1249. An exception to this rule respecting the presumption of innocence has been made in the case of the publication of a libel, the principal being presumed to have authorized the sale, when a libel is sold by his agent in his usual place of doing business. 1 Russ. on Cr. 341; 10 Johns. R. 443; Bull. N. P. 6; Greenl. Ev. 36. See 4 Nev. & M. 341; 2 Ad. & Ell. 540; 5 Barn. & Ad. 86; 1 Stark. N. P. C. 21; 2 Nov. & M. 219.

INNOCENT CONVEYANCES. This term is used in England, technically, to signify those conveyances made by a tenant of his leasehold, which do not occasion a forfeiture these are conveyances by lease and release, bargain and sale, and a covenant to stand seised by a tenant for life. 1 Chit. Pr. 243, 244.

2. In this country forfeitures for alienation of a greater right than the tenant possesses, are almost unknown. The more just principle prevails that the conveyance by the tenant, whatever be its form, operates only on his interest. Vide Forfeiture,

INNOMINATE CONTRACTS, civil law. Contracts which have no particular names, as permutation and transaction, are so called. Inst. 2, 10, 13. There are many innominate contracts, but the Roman lawyers reduced thein to four classes, namely, do ut des, do ut facias, facio ut des, and facio ut facias. (q. v.) Dig. 2, 14, 7, 2.

INNOTESCIMUS, English law. An epithet used for letters-patent, which are always of a charter of feoffment, or some other instrument not of record, concluding with the words Innotescimus per praesentes, &c. Tech. Dict. h. t.

INNOVATION. Change of a thing established for something new.

2. Innovations are said to be dangerous, as likely to unsettle the common law. Co. Litt. 370, b; Id. 282, b. Certainly no innovations ought to be made by the courts, but as every thing human, is mutable, no legislation can be, or ought to be immutable; changes are required by the alteration of circumstances; amendments, by the imperfections of all human institutions but laws ought never to be changed without great deliberation, and a due consideration of the reasons on which they were founded, as of the circumstances under which they were enacted. Many innovations have been made. in the common law, which philosophy, philanthropy and common sense approve. The destruction of the benefit of clergy; of appeal, in felony; of trial by battle and ordeal; of the right of sanctuary; of the privilege to abjure the realm; of approvement, by which any criminal who could, in a judicial combat, by skill, force or fraud kill his accomplice, secured his own pardon of corruption of blood; of constructive treason; will be sanctioned; by all wise men, and none will desire a return to these barbarisms. The reader is referred to the case of James v. the Commo wealth, 12 Serg. & R. 220, and 225 to 2 Duncan, J., exposes the absurdity of some ancient laws, with much sarcasm.

INNOVATION, Scotch law. The exchange of one obligation for another, so that the second shall come in the place of the first. Bell's Scotch Law Dict. h. t. The same as Novation. (q. v.)

INNS OF COURT, Engl. law. The name given to the colleges of the English professors and students of the common law. 2. The four principal Inns of Court are the Inner Temple and Middle Temple, (formerly belonging to the Knights Templars) Lincoln's Inn, and Gray's Inn, (ancient belonging to the earls of Lincoln and ray.) The other inns are the two Sergeants' Inns. The Inns of Chancery were probably so called because they were once inhabited by such clerks, as chiefly studied the forming of writs, which regularly belonged to the cursitors, who are officers of chancery. These are Thavie's Inn, the New Inn, Symond's Inn, Clement's Inn, Clifford's Inn,' Staple's Inn, Lion's Inn, Furnival's Inn and Barnard's Inn. Before being called to the bar, it is necessary to be admitted to one of the Inns of Court.

INNUENDO, pleading. An averment which explains the defendoant's meaning by reference to antecedent matter. Salk. 513; 1 Ld. Raym. 256; 12 Mod. 139; 1 Saund. 243. The innuendo is mostly used in actions for slander. An innuendo, as, "he the said plaintiff meaning," is only explanatory of some matter expressed; it serves to apply the slander to the precedent matter, but cannot add or enlarge, extend, or change the sense of the previous words, and the matter to which it alludes must always appear from the antecedent parts of the declaration or indictment. 1 Chit. Pl. 383; 3 Caines' Rep. 76; 7 Johns. R. 271; 5 Johns. R. 211; 8 Johns. R. 109; 8 N. H. Rep. 256.

3. It is necessary only when the intent may be mistaken, or when it cannot be collected from the libel or slander itself. Cowp. 679; 5 East, 463.

4. If the innuendo materially enlarge the sense of the words it will vitiate the declaration or indictment. 6 T. R. 691; 5 Binn. 218; 5 Johns. R. 220; 6 Johns. R. 83; 7 Johns. Rep. 271. But when the new matter stated in an innuendo is not necessary to support the action, it may be rejected as surplusage. 9 East, R. 95; 7 Johns. R. 272. Vide, generally, Stark. on Slan. 293; 1 Chit. Pl. 383; 3 Chit. Cr. Law, 873; Bac. Ab. Slander, R; 1 Saund. 243, n. 4; 4 Com. Dig. 712; 14 Vin. Ab. 442; Dane's Ab. Index, h. t.; 4 Co. 17.

INOFFICIOUS, civil law. This word is frequently used with others; as, inofficious testament, inofficiosum testamentum; inofficious gift, donatio inofficiosa. An inofficious testament is one not made according to the rules of piety; that is, one made by which the testator has unlawfully omitted or disinherited one of his heirs. Such a disposition is void by the Roman civil law. Dig. 5, 2, 5; see Code, 3, 29; Nov. 115; Ayl. Pand. 405; Civil Code of Lo. art. 3522, n. 21.

INOPS CONSILII. Destitute or without counsel. In the construction of wills a greater latitude is given, because the testator is supposed to have been inops consilii.

INQUEST. A body of men appointed by law to inquire into certain matters; as, the inquest examined into the facts connected with the alleged murder; the grand jury, is sometimes called the grand inquest. The judicial inquiry itself is also called an inquest. The finding of such men, upon an investigation, is also called an inquest or an inquisition.

2. An inquest of office was bound to find for the king upon the direction of the court. The reason given is that the inquest coucluded no man of his right, but only gave the king an opportunity to enter so that he could have his right tried. Moore, 730; Vaughan, 135; 3 H. VII. 10; 2 H. IV. 5; 3 Leon. 196.

INQUIRY, WRIT OF. A writ of inquiry is one issued where a judgment has been entered in a case sounding in damages, without any particular amount being ascertained; this writ is for the purpose of ascertaining the amount to which the plaintiff is entitled. Vide Writ Of Inquiry.

INQUISITION, practice. An examination of certain facts by a jury impannelled by the sheriff for the purpose; the instrument of writing on which their decision is made is also called an inquisition. The sheriff or coroner and the jury who make the inquisition, are called the inquest.

2. An inquisition on an untimely death, if omitted by the coroner, may be taken by justices of gaol delivery and oyer and terminer. or of the peace, but it must be done publicly and openly, otherwise it will be quashed. Inquisitions either of the coroner, or of the other jurisdictions, are traversable. 1 Burr. 18, 19.

INQUISITOR. A designation of sheriffs, coroners, super visum corporis, and the like, who have power to inquire into certain matters.

2. The name, of an officer, among ecclesiastics, who is authorized to inquire into heresies, and the like, and to punish them. An ecclesiastical judge.

INROLLMENT. The act of putting upon a roll. Formerly, the record of a suit was kept on skins of parchment, which, best to preserve them, were kept upon a roll or in the form of a roll; what was written upon them was called the inrollment. After, when such records came to be kept in books, the making up of the record retained the old name of inrollment.