PRICE, contracts. The consideration in money given for the purchase of a thing.

2. There are three requisites to the quality of a price iii order to make a sale.

3. - 1. It must be serious, and such as may be demanded: if, therefore, a person were to sell me an article, and by the agreement, reduced to writing, he were to release me from the payment, the transaction would no longer be a sale, but a gift, Poth. Vente, n. 18.

4. - 2. The second quality of a price is, that the price be certain and determinate; but what may be rendered certain is considered as certain if, therefore, I sell a thing at a price to be fixed by a third person, this is sufficiently certain, provided the third person make a valuation and fix the price. Poth. Vente, n. 23, 24.

5. - 3. The third quality of a price is, that it consists in money, to be paid down, or at a future time, for if it be of any thing else, it will no longer be a price, nor the contract a sale, but exchange or barter. Poth. Vente, n. 30; 16 Toull. n. 147.

6. The true price of a thing is that for which things of a like nature and quality are usually sold in the place where situated, if real property; or in the place where exposed to sale, if personal. Poth. Contr. de Vente, n. 243. The first price or cost of a thing does not always afford a sure criterion of its value. It may have been bought very dear or very cheap. Marsh. Ins. 620, et seq.; Ayliffe's Pand. 447; Merlin, Repert. h. t.; 4 Pick. 179; 8 Pick. 252; 16 Pick. 227.

7. In a declaration in trover it is usual, when the chattel found is a living one, to lay it as of such a price when dead, of such a value. 8 Wentw. Pl. 372, n; 2 Lilly's Ab. 629. Vide Bouv. Inst. Index, h. t.; Adjustment; Inadequacy of price; Pretium offectionis.

PRICE CURRENT. The price for which goods, usually sell in the market. A printed newspaper containing a list of such prices is also called a price current.

PRIMA FACIE. The first blush; the first view or appearance of the business; as, the holder of a bill of exchange, indorsed in blank, is prima facie its owner.

2. Prima facie evidence of a fact, is in law sufficient to establish the fact, unless rebutted. 6 Pet. R. 622, 632; 14 Pet. R. 334. See, generally, 7 J. J. Marsh, 425; 3 N. H. Rep. 484; 3 Stew. & Port. 267; 5 Rand. 701; 1 Pick. 332; 1 South. 77; 1 Yeates, 347; Gilp. 147; 2 N. & McCord, 320; 1 Miss. 334; 11 Conn. 95; 2 Root, 286; 16 John. 66, 136; 1 Bailey, 174: 2 A. K. Marsh. 244. For example, when buildings are fired by sparks emitted from a locomotive engine passing along the road, it is prima facie evidence of negligence on the part of those who have the charge of it. 3 Man. Gr. & Sc. 229.

PRIMA TONSURA. A grant of a right to have the first crop of grass. 1 Chit. Pr. 181.

PRIMAGE, merc. law. A duty payable to the master and mariner of a ship or vessel; to the master for the use of his cables and ropes to discharge the goods of the merchant; to the mariners for lading and unlading in any port or haven. Merch. Dict. h. t.; Abb. on Ship. 270.

2. This payment appears to be of very ancient date, and to be variously regulated in different voyages and trades. It is sometimes called the master's hat money. 3 Chit. Com. Law, 431.

PRIMARY. That which is first or principal; as primary evidence, or that evidence which is to be admitted in the first instance, as distinguished from secondary evidence, which is allowed only when primary evidence cannot be had.

2. A primary obligation is one which is the principal object of the contract; for example, the primary obligation of the seller is to deliver the thing sold, and to transfer the title to it. It is distinguished from the accessory or secondary obligation to pay damages for not doing so. 1 Bouv. Inst. n. 702.

PRIMARY EVIDFNCE. The best evidence of which the case in its nature is susceptible. 3 Bouv. Inst. n. 3053. Vide Evidence. PRIMARY POWERS. The principal authority given by a principal to his agent; it differs from mediate powers. (q. v.) Story, Ag. 58.

PRIMATE, eccles. law.. An archbishop who has jurisdiction over one or several other metropolitans.

PRIMER ELECTION. A term used to signify first choice.

2. In England, when coparcenary lands are divided, unless it is otherwise agreed, the eldest sister has the first choice of the purparts; this part is called the enitia pars. (q. v.) Sometimes the oldest sister makes the partition, and in that case, to prevent partiality, she takes the last choice. Hob. 107; Litt. 243, 244, 245; Bac. Ab. Coparceners, C.

PRIMER SEISIN, Eng. law. The right which the king had, when any of his tenants died seised of a knight's fee, to receive of the heir, provided he were of fall age, one whole year's profits of the lands, if they were in immediate possession; and half a year's profits, if the lands were in reversion, expectant on an estate for life. 2 Bl. Com. 66.

PRIMOGENITURE. The state of being first born the eldest. 2. Formerly primogeniture gave a title in cases of descent to the oldest son in preference to the other children; this unjust distinction has been geuerally abolished in the United States.

PRIMOGENITUS. The first born. 1 Ves. 290 and see 3 M. & S. 25; 8 Taunt. 468; 3 Vern. 660.

PRIMUM DECRETUM. In the courts of admiralty, this name is given to a provisional decree. Bac. Ab. The Court of Admiralty, E.

PRINCE. In a general sense, a sovereign the ruler of a nation or state. The son of a king or emperor, or the issue of a royal family; as, princes of the blood. The chief of any body of men.

2. By a clause inserted in policies of insurance, the insurer is liable for all losses occasioned by "arrest or detainment of all kings, princes, and people, of what nation, condition, or quality soever." 1 Bouv. Inst. n. 1218.

PRINCIPAL. This word has several meanings. It is used in opposition to accessary, to show the degree of crime committed by two persons; thus, we say, the principal is more guilty than the accessary after the fact.

2. In estates, principal is used as opposed to incident or accessory; as in the following rule: "the incident shall pass by the grant of the principal, but not the principal by the grant of the incident. Accessorium non ducit, sed sequitur suum principale." Co. Litt. 152, a.

3. It is used in opposition to agent, and in this sense it signifies that the principal is the prime mover.

4. It is used in opposition to interest; as, the principal being secured tho interest will follow.

5. It is lased also in opposition to surety; thus, we say the principal is answerable before the surety.

6. Principal is used also to denote the more important; as, the principal person.

7. In the English law, the chief person in some of the inns of chancery is called principal of the house. Principal is also used to designate the best of many things as, the best bed, the best table, and the like.

PRINCIPAL, contracts. One who, being competent to contract, and who is sui juris, employs another to do any act for his own benefit, or on his own account.

2. As a general rule, it may be said, that every person, sui juris, is capable of being a principal, for in all cases where a man has power as owner, or in his own right to do anything, he may do it by another. 16 John. 86; 9 Co. 75; Com. Dig. Attorney, C 1; Heinec. ad Pand. P. 1, lib. 3, tit. 424.

3. Married women, and persons who are deprived of understanding, as idiots, lunatics, and others, not sui juris, are wholly incapable of entering into any contract, and, consequently, cannot appoint an agent. Infants and married women are generally, incapable but, under special circumstances, they may make such appointments. For instance, an infant may make an attorney, when it is for his benefit; but lie cannot enter into any contract which is to Iiis prejudice. Com. Dig. Enfant, C 2; Perk. 13; 9 Co. 75; 3 Burr. 1804. A married woman cannot, in general, appoint an agent or attorney, and when it is requisite that one should be appointed, the hushand generally appoints for both. Perhaps for her separate property she may, with her hushand, appoint an agent or attorney; Cro. Car. 165,; 2 Leon. 200; 2 Buls. R. 13; but this seems to be doubted. Cro. Jac. 617; Yelv. 1; 1 Brownl. 134; 2 Brownl. 248; Adams' Ej. 174; Runn. Ej. 148.

4. A principal has rights which he can enforce, and is liable to obligations which he must perform. These will be briefly considered: 1. The rights to which principals are entitled arise from obligations due to them by their agents, or by third persons.

5. - 1st. The rights against their agents, are, 1. To call them to an account at all times, in relation to the business of their agency. 2. When the agent violates his obligations to his principal, either by exceeding his authority, or by positive misconduct, or by mere negligence or omissions in the discharge of the functions of his agency, or in any other manner, and any loss or damage falls on his principal, the latter will be entitled to full indemnity. Paley on Ag. by Lloyd, 7, 71, 74, and note 2 12 Pick. 328; 1 B. & Adolph. 415; 1 Liverm. Ag. 398. 3. The principal has a right to supersede his agent, where each may maintain a suit against a third person, by suing in his own name; and he may, by his own intervention, intercept, suspend, or extinguish the right of the agent under the contract. Paley Ag. by Lloyd, 362; 7 Taunt. 237, 243; 1 M. & S. 576 1 Liverm. Ag. 226-228; 2 W. C. C. R. 283; 3 Chit. Com. Law, 201-203.

6. - 2d. The principal's rights against third persons. 1. When a contract is made by the agent with a third person in the name of his principal, the latter may enforce it by action. But to this rule there are some exceptions 1st. When the instrument is under seal, and it has been exclusively made between the agent and the third person; as, for example, a charter party or bottomry bond iii this case the principal cannot sue on it. See 1 Paine, Cir. R. 252; 3 W. C. C. R. 560; 1 M. &. S. 573; Abbott, Ship, pt. 3, c. 1, s. 2. 2d. When an exclusive credit is given to and by the agent, and therefore the principal cannot be considered in any manner a party to the contract, although he may have authorized it, and be entitled to all the benefits arising from it. The case of a foreign factor, buying or selling goods, is an example of this kind: he is treated as between himself and the other party, as the sole contractor, and the real principal cannot sue or be sued on the contract. This, it has been well observed, is a general rule of commercial law, founded upon the known usage of trade; and it is strictly adhered to for the safety and convenience of foreign commerce. Story, Ag. 423; Smith Mer. Law, 66; 15 East, R. 62; 9 B. & C. 87. 3d. When the agent, has a lien or claim upon the property bought or sold, or upon its proceeds, when it equals or exceeds the amount of its value. Story, Ag. 407, 408, 424.

7. - 2. But contracts are not unfrequently made without mentioning the name of the principal; in such case he may avail himself of the agreement, for the contract will be treated as that of the principal, as well as of the agent. Story, Ag. 109, 111, 403, 410, 417, 440; Paley, Ag. by Lloyd, 21, 22; Marsh. Ins. b. 1, c. 8, 3, p. 311; 2 Kent's Com. 3d edit. 630; 3 Chit. Com. Law, 201; vide 1 Paine's C. C. Rep. 252.

8. - 3. Third persons are also liable to the principal for any tort or injury done to his property or rights in the course of the agency. Pal. Ag. by Lloyd, 363; Story, Ag. 436; 3 Chit. Com. Law, 205, 206; 15 East, R. 38.

9. - 2. The liabilities of the principal are either to his agent or to third persons.

10. - 1st. The liabilities of the principal to his agent, are, 1. To reimburse him all expenses he may have lawfully incurred about the agency. Story, Ag. 335 Story, Bailm. 196, 197; 2 Liv. Ag. 11 to 33. 2. To pay him his commissions as agreed upon, or according to the usage of trade, except in cases of gratuitous agency. Story, Ag. 323; Story, Bailm. 153, 154, 196 to 201. 3. To indemnify the agent when he has sustained damages in consequence of the principal's conduct for example, when the agent has innocently sold the goods of a third person, under the direction or authority of his principal, and a third person recovers damages against the agent, the latter will be entitled to reimbursement from the principal. Pal. Ag. by Lloyd, 152, 301; 2 John. Cas. 54; 17 John. 142; 14 Pick. 174.

11. - 2d. The liabilities of the principal to third persons, are,

1. To fulfii all the engagements made by the agent, for or in the name of the principal, and which come within the scope of his authority. Story, Ag. 126.

2. When a man stands by and permits another to do an act in his name, his authority will be presumed. Vide Authority, and 2 Kent, Com. 3d edit. 614; Story, Ag. 89, 90, 91; and articles Assent; Consent.

3. The principal is liable to third persons for the misfeasance, negligence, or omission of duty of his agent; but he has a remedy over against the agent, when the injury has occurred in consequence of his misconduct or culpable neglect; Story, Ag. 308; Paley, Ag. by Lloyd, 152, 3; 1 Metc. 560; 1 B. Mont. 292; 5 B. Monr. 25; 9 W. & S. 72; 8 Pick. 23; 6 Gill & John. 292; 4 Q. B. 298; 1 Hare & Wall. Sel. Dee. 467; Dudl. So. Car. R. 265, 268; 5 Humph. 397; 2 Murph. 389; 1 Ired. 240; but the principal is not liable for torts committed by the agent without authority. 5 Humph. 397; 2 Murph. 389; 19 Wend. 343; 2 Metc. 853. A principal is also liable for the misconduct of a sub-agent, when retained by his direction, either express or implied. 1 B. & P. 404; 15 East, 66.

12. The general, rule, that a principal cannot be charged with injuries committed by his agent without his assent, admits of one exception, for reasons of policy. A sheriff is liable, even under a penal statute, for all injurious acts, wilful or negligent, done by his appointed officers, colore officii, when charged and deputed by him to execute the law. The sheriff is, therefore, liable where his deputy wrongfully executes a writ; Dougl. 40; or where he takes illegal fees. 2 E. N. P. C. 585.

13. But the principal may be liable for his agent's misconduct, when he has agreed, either expressly or by implication, to be so liable. 8 T. R . 531; 2 Cas. N. P. C. 42. Vide Bouv. Inst. Index, h. t.; Agency; Agent.

PRINCIPAL, crim. law. A principal is one who is the actor in the commission of a crime.

2. Principals are of two kinds; namely, 1. Principals in the first degree, are those who have actually with their own hands committed the fact, or have committed it through an innocent agent incapable himself, of doing so; as an example of the latter kind, may be mentioned the case of a person who incites a child wanting discretion, or a person non compos, to the commission of murder, or any other crime, the incitor, though absent, when the crime was committed, is, ex necessitate, liable for the acts of his agent and is a principal in the first degree. Fost. 340; 1 East, P. C. 118; 1 Hawk. c. 31, s. 7; 1 N. R. 92; 2 Leach, 978. It is not requisite that each of the principals should be present at the entire transaction. 2 East, P. C. 767. For example, where several persons agree to forge an instrument, and each performs some part of the forgery in pursuance of the common plan, each is principal in the forgery, although one may be away when it is signed. R. & R. C. C. 304; Mo. C. C. 304, 307.

3. - 2. Principals in the second degree, are those who were present aiding and abetting the commission of the fact. They are generally termed aiders and abettors, and sometimes, improperly, accomplices. (q. v.) The presence which is required in order to make a man principal in the second degree, need not be a strict actual, immediate presence, such a presence as would make him an eye or ear witness of what passes, but may be a constructive presence. It must be such as may be sufficient to afford aid and assistance to the principal in the first degree. 9 Pick. R. 496; 1 Russell, 21; Foster, 350.

4. It is evident from the definition that to make a wan a principal, he must be an actor in the commission of the crime and, therefore, if a man happen merely to be present when a felony is committed without taking any part in it-or aiding those who do, he will not, for that reason, be considered a principal. 1 Hale, P. C. 439; Foster, 350.

PRINCIPAL CONTRACT. One entered into by both parties, on their own accounts, or in the several qualities they assume. It differs from an accessory contract. (q. v.) Vide Contract.

PRINCIPAL OBLIGATION That obligation which arises from the principal object of the engagement which has been contracted between the parties. It differs from an accessory obligation. (q. v.) For example, in the sale of a horse, the principal obligation of the seller is to deliver the horse; the obligation to take care of him till delivered is an accessory engagement. Poth. Obl. n. 182. By principal obligation is also understood tho engagement of one who becomes bound for himself and not for the benefit of another. Poth. Obl. n. 186.

PRINCIPLES. By this term is understood truths or propositions so clear that they cannot be proved nor contradicted, unless by propositions which are still clearer. They are of two kinds, one when the principle is universal, and these are kuown as axioms or maxims; as, no one can transmit rights which he has not; the accessory follows the principal, &c. The other class are simply called first principles. These principles have known marks by which they may always be recognized. These are, 1. That they are so clear that they cannot be proved by anterior and more manifest truths. 2, That they are almost universally received. 3. That they are so strongly impressed on our minds that we conform ourselves to them, whatever may be our avowed opinions.

2. First principles have their source in the sentiment of our own existence, and that which is in the nature of things. A principle of law is a rule or axiom which is founded in the nature of the subject, and it exists before it is expressed in the form of a rule. Domat, Lois Civiles, liv. prel. t. 1, s. 2 Toull. tit. prel. n. 17. The right to defend one's self, continues as long as an unjust attack, was a principle before it was ever decides by a court, so that a court does Dot establish but recognize principles of law.

3. In physics, by principle is understood that which constitutes the essence of a body, or its constituent parts. 8 T. R. 107. See 2 H. Bl. 478. Taken in this sense, a principle cannot be patented; but when by the principle of a machine is meant the modus operandi, the peculiar device or manner of producing any given effect, the application of the principle may be patented. 1 Mason, 470; 1 Gallis, 478; Fessend. on Pat. 130; Phil. on Pat. 95, 101; Perpigna, Manuel des Inventeurs, &c., c. 2, s. 1.